Chapter summary
1. Inductive reasoning is the process of thinking that you used in describing a fruit, vegetable, or tool in Chapter 1 when you began by not knowing the identity of the covered object.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can abe done through sensory observation, enumeration, analoous reasoning, causal reasoninig, and from pattern recognition.
5. Aconclusion derived through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain than the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaininig information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking sttistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
7. The five baisc rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on statistical samplings are as follows;
a) The greater the size of the sample, the greater is its probability of being representative of the whole of a class.
b) A sampling must be representative in order to lead to reliable results.
c) Statistical evidence should be offered in sufficient detail for verification.
d)One counter example can refute a generalization arrived at through inductive reasoning.
e) When evaluating the results of polls, it is important to examine both the polling agency and the polling question for bias.
Thursday, May 8, 2008
TFY Chapter 10 (Fallacies: what's Faulty Argument?)
1. Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom. Hoever, the appeal to an authentic and appropriate authority is not a fallacy; it can provide excellent support for claims.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attcking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeds to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creates a false replica, then destroys the replica. The straw man also invalidates by attac,ing a minor point as though the whole argument depended upon it.
11. Pointing to another wrong is also called two wrongs make a right. it says , "Don't look at me; he did it too!"
12. Circular reasoning is the assertio or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretned that no supporting reasons are needed. Circular reasoning assumes what it is supposed to prove.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom. Hoever, the appeal to an authentic and appropriate authority is not a fallacy; it can provide excellent support for claims.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attcking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeds to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creates a false replica, then destroys the replica. The straw man also invalidates by attac,ing a minor point as though the whole argument depended upon it.
11. Pointing to another wrong is also called two wrongs make a right. it says , "Don't look at me; he did it too!"
12. Circular reasoning is the assertio or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretned that no supporting reasons are needed. Circular reasoning assumes what it is supposed to prove.
TFY chapter 9 (Argument: what's a good Argument?)
1. The critical reading of arguments is an active endeaveor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What wiewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e)What are the argument's strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any time during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context. Once the argument's main conclusion is uncovered, the reaseons offered in support becomes clear.
6. Arguments state and defednd a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as though they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
9. The following questions can serve as quidelines for analyzing the strengths and weakness of arguments.
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b)Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of resoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What wiewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e)What are the argument's strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any time during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context. Once the argument's main conclusion is uncovered, the reaseons offered in support becomes clear.
6. Arguments state and defednd a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as though they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
9. The following questions can serve as quidelines for analyzing the strengths and weakness of arguments.
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b)Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of resoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
TFY Chapter 8 view pints: What's the filter?
chapter summary
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations- can either be conscioulsly or unconscilusly assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shpe their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first-person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocntric, ethnocnetric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the Internet a fat wider range of viewpoints is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious group, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions mad by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations- can either be conscioulsly or unconscilusly assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shpe their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first-person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocntric, ethnocnetric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the Internet a fat wider range of viewpoints is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious group, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions mad by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
TFY Chapter 6 ( Opinions: what's Believed?)
1. Although the word opinion is a common one, it is just as commonly misunderstood, since the same word covers so many varieties of thoughts, ranging from expert judgments to expressions of sentiment or personal taste.
2. Opinions can be wll substantiated or not. They can be based either on reaseons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsibel opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is bsed on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not the same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same sageguards as public electrons.
7. Opinionss whould not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
2. Opinions can be wll substantiated or not. They can be based either on reaseons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsibel opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is bsed on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not the same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same sageguards as public electrons.
7. Opinionss whould not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
TFY Chapter 7 ( Evaluations: What's Judged?)
1. Evaluations make judgements about worth on the basis of standards that may be conscious or unconscious.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instedad of last may be problematiacl when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feeling and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluions since they affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we reconize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not chooose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make positive associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the infulence of propaganda.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instedad of last may be problematiacl when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feeling and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluions since they affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we reconize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not chooose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make positive associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the infulence of propaganda.
TFY Chapter 5 (Assumptions: what's taken for granted?)
Chapter summary
1. An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we do not check out carefully. Often, we do not recognize that we have made an assumption until it causes a problem for us.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. We need to recognize the diffrence.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that greatly influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously inffluence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. This can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new unerstanding through the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she does not buy the assumptions that restain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are confronted with a problem to solve.
1. An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we do not check out carefully. Often, we do not recognize that we have made an assumption until it causes a problem for us.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. We need to recognize the diffrence.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that greatly influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously inffluence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. This can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new unerstanding through the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she does not buy the assumptions that restain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are confronted with a problem to solve.
TFY Chapter 4 (Inferences: what follows?)
Chapter summary
1. The word infr means a) to derive by reasoning, b) to conclude, c) to guess. When we infer, we use imaginatin or reasoning to provide explanations for situations where all the facts are either not available or not yet determined.
2. Responsible report writing or descriptive writing lets the facts speak for themselves as much as possible. This often means taking the time to find the right words to describe the obvious and abandoning inferences drawn too hastily that cannont be supported.
3. Writing that offers specific detailed support for its conclusions makes interesting writing. When we perceive and think clearly, we interest boty ourselves and others.
4. Reasonable inferences can be used in descriptive writing to tie facts together. Care must be taken to distinguish facts from inferences, nevertheless.
5. In solving problems, inferences can be used as a strategy in planning and choosing alternatives. When we think well, we ssess all facts, derive as many inferences as we can, and devese strategies for confirming or obtaining more information.
6. Detectives and consultants of all kinds are valued for their ability to examine facts and make the best inferences from them.
7.Inferences tend to build on inferences in chains of association. Unless each inference is tested for its support of evidence, a series of inferences can mislead us into flights of imagination, away from reliable knowledge.
8. Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations. Facts have little significance in themselves until generalizations or laws can be derived from them. Generalizing too soon, before we have gathered a sufficient number of facts, is hazardous; this does not mean that we should not generalize at all. It simply means that we should learn how to draw generalizations that can be supported.
9. The topic sentence of a paragraph is a generalization that summarizes the main idea to be demonstrated in that paragraph. When we think, we usuallly arrive at this generalization last, after we have examined all our facts and inferences; nevertheless, we state it first, at the begininig of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a kind of conclusion, which is repeated again in another form at the end of the paragraph.
10. By the time you have finished this chapter, you should understand more about the thinking operations involved in constructing a paragraph or engaging in descriptive writing. You will understand how observation helps determine facts, imagination, and reasoning to link the facts with explanations, and how a generalization ties all this information together into a meaninful whole.
1. The word infr means a) to derive by reasoning, b) to conclude, c) to guess. When we infer, we use imaginatin or reasoning to provide explanations for situations where all the facts are either not available or not yet determined.
2. Responsible report writing or descriptive writing lets the facts speak for themselves as much as possible. This often means taking the time to find the right words to describe the obvious and abandoning inferences drawn too hastily that cannont be supported.
3. Writing that offers specific detailed support for its conclusions makes interesting writing. When we perceive and think clearly, we interest boty ourselves and others.
4. Reasonable inferences can be used in descriptive writing to tie facts together. Care must be taken to distinguish facts from inferences, nevertheless.
5. In solving problems, inferences can be used as a strategy in planning and choosing alternatives. When we think well, we ssess all facts, derive as many inferences as we can, and devese strategies for confirming or obtaining more information.
6. Detectives and consultants of all kinds are valued for their ability to examine facts and make the best inferences from them.
7.Inferences tend to build on inferences in chains of association. Unless each inference is tested for its support of evidence, a series of inferences can mislead us into flights of imagination, away from reliable knowledge.
8. Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations. Facts have little significance in themselves until generalizations or laws can be derived from them. Generalizing too soon, before we have gathered a sufficient number of facts, is hazardous; this does not mean that we should not generalize at all. It simply means that we should learn how to draw generalizations that can be supported.
9. The topic sentence of a paragraph is a generalization that summarizes the main idea to be demonstrated in that paragraph. When we think, we usuallly arrive at this generalization last, after we have examined all our facts and inferences; nevertheless, we state it first, at the begininig of the paragraph. The topic sentence is a kind of conclusion, which is repeated again in another form at the end of the paragraph.
10. By the time you have finished this chapter, you should understand more about the thinking operations involved in constructing a paragraph or engaging in descriptive writing. You will understand how observation helps determine facts, imagination, and reasoning to link the facts with explanations, and how a generalization ties all this information together into a meaninful whole.
TFY Chapter 3 ( Fact: what's real?)
Chapter summary
1. By definition, a fact is something known with certainty through experience, observation, or measurement. A fact can be objectively demonstrated and verified. A fact is something that people agree corresponds to reality.
2. It is not easy for us to determine whether facts correspond to reality. This can only be determined over time with repeated feedback and testing.
3. The diffrence between facts and fiction does matter.
4. Feeling are facts; they can distort or enhance our perceptions, depending on how conscious we are of their presence.
5. Facts are not absolutes but statements of probability.
6. Because we are dependent on confirmation from others in our search for facts, social pressures can lead us to distrust or distort our own perceptions.
7. Our senses are limited both in range and capacity and are affected by many factors, such as selective focus and mental preoccupations.
8. Facts must be expressed in carefully formulated statements that have the following characteristics:
a) They define their own limitations.
b) They are objectively stated.
c) They use appropriate qualifiers.
d) They state the obvious.
e) They are not inappropriately cautious.
f) They do not include guesses or inferences.
g) They are specific and offer their evidence for others to verify.
9.The standards traditionally used to determine facts are verifiability, reliability, plausibility, and probablity. Facts have to undergo the test of time and repetition and not contradict other known facts.
1. By definition, a fact is something known with certainty through experience, observation, or measurement. A fact can be objectively demonstrated and verified. A fact is something that people agree corresponds to reality.
2. It is not easy for us to determine whether facts correspond to reality. This can only be determined over time with repeated feedback and testing.
3. The diffrence between facts and fiction does matter.
4. Feeling are facts; they can distort or enhance our perceptions, depending on how conscious we are of their presence.
5. Facts are not absolutes but statements of probability.
6. Because we are dependent on confirmation from others in our search for facts, social pressures can lead us to distrust or distort our own perceptions.
7. Our senses are limited both in range and capacity and are affected by many factors, such as selective focus and mental preoccupations.
8. Facts must be expressed in carefully formulated statements that have the following characteristics:
a) They define their own limitations.
b) They are objectively stated.
c) They use appropriate qualifiers.
d) They state the obvious.
e) They are not inappropriately cautious.
f) They do not include guesses or inferences.
g) They are specific and offer their evidence for others to verify.
9.The standards traditionally used to determine facts are verifiability, reliability, plausibility, and probablity. Facts have to undergo the test of time and repetition and not contradict other known facts.
TFY Chapter 2 (Word precision: how do i describe it?)
Chapter summary
1. An accurate use of words improves our thinking. They give forms to our thoughts so that we can make use of them. Words enable us to communicate with others and ourselves. Knowing the words for things and experiences helps us see and perceive more.
2. Writing helps us learn more about words and how to use them. Whem we struggle to select words that will describe our experience, we realize that words are only translations of experience and not experience itself
3. Clear thinking depends on a clear understanding of the words we use. Word confusion leads to less consciousness, or disequilibrium, which can only be restored through word clarification.
4. We need to understand what dictionaries can and cannnot offer us; we need to use them sillfully and frequently.
5. The thesaurus helps us when we are writing and translating nonverbal experiences and ideas into words; the dictionary haelps us when we are reading and interpreting the word of others.
6. Definitions set boundaries for word ideas and show us their specific and general characteristics and how they are related to or distinguished from one another.
7. Dictionary definitions show us the agreements that society has made about a word's meaning. But we may also compose our own personal or stipulative definitions of experiences or compose persuasive definitions to sway the opinions of others. In critical thinking it is important not to confuse these diffrent kinds of deifinitions, or to believe that personal, persuasive, or stipulative definitions carry the same agreements as those to be found in a dictionary.
8. The test of our understanding of a word is our ability to define it. This ability is particularly important for words representing key ideas that we wish to explain or defend. Taking the time to define the words we use is and essential preliminary to genuine communication.
9.A study of a word's etymology can help us trace a word back to its earliest root idea and can give us an image that conveys a more concrete sense of word's logic. Learning a word's etymology can also help us reconize its relationship to other words with the same root meanings.
10. The connotations of a word are its associative meanings, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. These associations can take the form of feelings, ideas, images, or thoughts. Thus, although politicians might rarely admit to lying or being confused, it is quite acceptable for them to admit they misspoke.
11.The first stage of critical reading is objective receptivity to the material; this means having the technical ability as well as the willingness to accurately reproduce its content without alterations or distortions. If we question and interact with material that we have not accurately interpreted, our criticisms will not be fair or worthwhile.
1. An accurate use of words improves our thinking. They give forms to our thoughts so that we can make use of them. Words enable us to communicate with others and ourselves. Knowing the words for things and experiences helps us see and perceive more.
2. Writing helps us learn more about words and how to use them. Whem we struggle to select words that will describe our experience, we realize that words are only translations of experience and not experience itself
3. Clear thinking depends on a clear understanding of the words we use. Word confusion leads to less consciousness, or disequilibrium, which can only be restored through word clarification.
4. We need to understand what dictionaries can and cannnot offer us; we need to use them sillfully and frequently.
5. The thesaurus helps us when we are writing and translating nonverbal experiences and ideas into words; the dictionary haelps us when we are reading and interpreting the word of others.
6. Definitions set boundaries for word ideas and show us their specific and general characteristics and how they are related to or distinguished from one another.
7. Dictionary definitions show us the agreements that society has made about a word's meaning. But we may also compose our own personal or stipulative definitions of experiences or compose persuasive definitions to sway the opinions of others. In critical thinking it is important not to confuse these diffrent kinds of deifinitions, or to believe that personal, persuasive, or stipulative definitions carry the same agreements as those to be found in a dictionary.
8. The test of our understanding of a word is our ability to define it. This ability is particularly important for words representing key ideas that we wish to explain or defend. Taking the time to define the words we use is and essential preliminary to genuine communication.
9.A study of a word's etymology can help us trace a word back to its earliest root idea and can give us an image that conveys a more concrete sense of word's logic. Learning a word's etymology can also help us reconize its relationship to other words with the same root meanings.
10. The connotations of a word are its associative meanings, which can be positive, negative, or neutral. These associations can take the form of feelings, ideas, images, or thoughts. Thus, although politicians might rarely admit to lying or being confused, it is quite acceptable for them to admit they misspoke.
11.The first stage of critical reading is objective receptivity to the material; this means having the technical ability as well as the willingness to accurately reproduce its content without alterations or distortions. If we question and interact with material that we have not accurately interpreted, our criticisms will not be fair or worthwhile.
TFY Chapter 1 (observation skills:what's out there?)
Chapter summary
1. If we want to develop more conscious thinking habits, we have to first observe our own thinking processes so we can recognize our strength and weaknesses.
2.careful observation can help us see details that contain the key to unlocking problems or arriving at insights. It can also help us discover new knowledge.
3. Observation is a process of sensing, perceiving, and thinking. Sensing is collecting data through the sense organs. perceiving is holding sense data in consciousness until we can categorize and interpret it. Thinking organizes our perceptions.
4. Careful observation requires us to stay awake, take our time, give full attenntion, suspend thinking in an attitude of listening.
5. The rewards of cultivating obsevation skills are self-understanding, cratively, rapture, power, and wonder.
1. If we want to develop more conscious thinking habits, we have to first observe our own thinking processes so we can recognize our strength and weaknesses.
2.careful observation can help us see details that contain the key to unlocking problems or arriving at insights. It can also help us discover new knowledge.
3. Observation is a process of sensing, perceiving, and thinking. Sensing is collecting data through the sense organs. perceiving is holding sense data in consciousness until we can categorize and interpret it. Thinking organizes our perceptions.
4. Careful observation requires us to stay awake, take our time, give full attenntion, suspend thinking in an attitude of listening.
5. The rewards of cultivating obsevation skills are self-understanding, cratively, rapture, power, and wonder.
Chapter 14 (Evaluating internet resources)
Chapter summary
Evaluating Internet sources of information helps you determine if they are reliable and useful. knowing how to critically evaluate Internet material not only helps you become a better student, but will help you in your work life beyond college. Use the Internet source evaluation saystem described in this chapter as a tool for assesing websites. As a reader and thinker, become an "open-minded skeptic" by considering each website's Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps: 1. Know your purpose. 2. Double-check facts and sources. 3.Consider the source. 4. Evaluate content. 5. Determine intended audience. 6. Evaluate the writing. 7. Use what you already know.
Evaluating Internet sources of information helps you determine if they are reliable and useful. knowing how to critically evaluate Internet material not only helps you become a better student, but will help you in your work life beyond college. Use the Internet source evaluation saystem described in this chapter as a tool for assesing websites. As a reader and thinker, become an "open-minded skeptic" by considering each website's Relevancy, Reliability, Credibility and Accuracy using the following seven steps: 1. Know your purpose. 2. Double-check facts and sources. 3.Consider the source. 4. Evaluate content. 5. Determine intended audience. 6. Evaluate the writing. 7. Use what you already know.
Chapter 13 ( Reading beyond the words)
Chapter summary
Critical reading comprehension involves challenging yourself to understand what you read in your textbooks at different levels of complexity. Bloom's taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking- knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kinds of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepare to answer them.
Critical reading comprehension involves challenging yourself to understand what you read in your textbooks at different levels of complexity. Bloom's taxonomy lists six levels of critical thinking- knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation- that you can use to deepen your understanding of textbook material. By creating and answering questions at each of these levels, you will be better able to predict the kinds of questions your instructor will ask on an exam and better prepare to answer them.
Chapter 12 (identifying and evaluating arguments)
Chapter summary
Reconizing arguments as you read lets you critically examine an author's line of reasoningl. Arguments always have the structure of at least one reason and one conclusion. One way to detect them is to look for an author's conclusions and then track the reasons he or she used to reach them. Another way is to look for the argument word clues an author uses to indicate when reasons are being presented and conclusions stated. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific criteria including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.
The two primary types of arguments are deductive and inductive. Deductive arguments have at least one premise that logically leads to a conclusion. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true. Inductive arguments begin with a series of specific observations and conclude with a generalization that logically flows from them. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absoultely true.
An author's views should be actively questioned so that flaws in the presentation of information are not passively accepted. Being able to detect and evaluate arguments in textbooks, and to create arguments using your textbook reading material, forces you to analyze the logic of what you read and helps you present your own ideas in a logical fashion.
Reconizing arguments as you read lets you critically examine an author's line of reasoningl. Arguments always have the structure of at least one reason and one conclusion. One way to detect them is to look for an author's conclusions and then track the reasons he or she used to reach them. Another way is to look for the argument word clues an author uses to indicate when reasons are being presented and conclusions stated. When you find an argument, you should break it down into its constituent parts so that you can determine whether it is well founded and logical. Arguments can be evaluated using specific criteria including determining dependability, distinguishing fact from opinion, and detecting fallacies.
The two primary types of arguments are deductive and inductive. Deductive arguments have at least one premise that logically leads to a conclusion. If the premise or premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true. Inductive arguments begin with a series of specific observations and conclude with a generalization that logically flows from them. As they are based on limited observations, even well-constructed inductive arguments cannot be considered absoultely true.
An author's views should be actively questioned so that flaws in the presentation of information are not passively accepted. Being able to detect and evaluate arguments in textbooks, and to create arguments using your textbook reading material, forces you to analyze the logic of what you read and helps you present your own ideas in a logical fashion.
Chapter 11 (reading, understanding, and creating visual aids)
Chapter summary
Textbook authors often use visual aids to help their readers better understand the information they are presenting. Visual information reinforces and supplements reading material. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines. The type of information being conveyed determines what type of visual aid an author will use. Learning how to read visuals will help you to understand and remember the textual information they illustrate.
An effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids. To create an effective visual aid, you have to recognize the important elements in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format. It will quickly become obvious how well you know the material; you can't draw a diagram or devise a table if you don't understand what you have read or heard. In many instances, an effective visual will save you from taking as many notes from your texts or in lectures.
Textbook authors often use visual aids to help their readers better understand the information they are presenting. Visual information reinforces and supplements reading material. Types of visual aids include mind maps, outlines, charts, diagrams, graphs, illustrations, photographs, and time lines. The type of information being conveyed determines what type of visual aid an author will use. Learning how to read visuals will help you to understand and remember the textual information they illustrate.
An effective reading and study strategy is to make your own visual aids. To create an effective visual aid, you have to recognize the important elements in what you are reading and be able to prioritize and organize them in a logical and useful format. It will quickly become obvious how well you know the material; you can't draw a diagram or devise a table if you don't understand what you have read or heard. In many instances, an effective visual will save you from taking as many notes from your texts or in lectures.
Chapter 10 (textbook marketing)
Chapter summary
Textbook marketing is a systematic mark-and -label reading tool that helps you distinguish important ideas from less important ones. At a minimum, you should aim to mark and label the main idea, important details, and new vocabulary in your textbook chapters. Beyond these three basic elements of textbook marking, you should use your experience in lecture and lab to decide if you need to mark more. Always mark information that is unclear, to remind yourself to find out what it means before you are tested on the material. Because every university, college, class, student, and textbook are different, you will develop your own system of textbook marking. A personalized system will work well as long as it is consistent, makes sense to you, and achieves the main goal of textbook marking: showing the relationships between ideas in what you read.
Textbook marketing is a systematic mark-and -label reading tool that helps you distinguish important ideas from less important ones. At a minimum, you should aim to mark and label the main idea, important details, and new vocabulary in your textbook chapters. Beyond these three basic elements of textbook marking, you should use your experience in lecture and lab to decide if you need to mark more. Always mark information that is unclear, to remind yourself to find out what it means before you are tested on the material. Because every university, college, class, student, and textbook are different, you will develop your own system of textbook marking. A personalized system will work well as long as it is consistent, makes sense to you, and achieves the main goal of textbook marking: showing the relationships between ideas in what you read.
Chapter 9 (Using preview, study-read, and review (PSR) strategies)
Chapter summary
The PSR technique (preview, study-read, and review) requires that you questin yourself before, during, and after you read. It encourages you to participate in a reader-author conversation rather than to read passively. In this conversation, you assess what the author says and decide if it makes sense to you. You also add what you know to the conversation by recalling related information. This dialogue, this active participation, help you understand and remember textbook material.
The PSR technique also requires you to respond to readings by writing in your journal. Commenting in writing helps you digest and understand an author's ideas and articulate in your own. By identifying exactly where you become confused in a reading, you can return to that point and reread the relevant section of text. This will help you to understand the material on your own or alert you to the fact that you need to ask a classmate or your instructor for help.
The PSR technique (preview, study-read, and review) requires that you questin yourself before, during, and after you read. It encourages you to participate in a reader-author conversation rather than to read passively. In this conversation, you assess what the author says and decide if it makes sense to you. You also add what you know to the conversation by recalling related information. This dialogue, this active participation, help you understand and remember textbook material.
The PSR technique also requires you to respond to readings by writing in your journal. Commenting in writing helps you digest and understand an author's ideas and articulate in your own. By identifying exactly where you become confused in a reading, you can return to that point and reread the relevant section of text. This will help you to understand the material on your own or alert you to the fact that you need to ask a classmate or your instructor for help.
Chapter 8 (Textbook methods of organization)
Chapter summary
Textbook authors usually organize information using certain classic methods or patterns. Being able to recognize organizational methods will help you understand the ideas in your textbooks and how they are connected to each other, because they will fit into logical patterns you are already familiar with. It will also help you to remember what you have read, because you are not memorizing facts in isolation, but relating them to each other to form patterns that hold and organize them in your memory. A useful way to dentify an author's metod of organization is to look for the organizationaal word clues (OWCs) that indicate which patterns he or she is using. It is also important to assess an author's overall method of organization. An author will frequently use more than one method from paragraph to paragraph, but have one overall method for each textbook chapter.
Textbook authors usually organize information using certain classic methods or patterns. Being able to recognize organizational methods will help you understand the ideas in your textbooks and how they are connected to each other, because they will fit into logical patterns you are already familiar with. It will also help you to remember what you have read, because you are not memorizing facts in isolation, but relating them to each other to form patterns that hold and organize them in your memory. A useful way to dentify an author's metod of organization is to look for the organizationaal word clues (OWCs) that indicate which patterns he or she is using. It is also important to assess an author's overall method of organization. An author will frequently use more than one method from paragraph to paragraph, but have one overall method for each textbook chapter.
Chapter 7 (Using inference to identify implied Main ideas)
Chapter summary
College instructors requier you not only to read and understand what is explicitly stated on the page, but also to detect ideas that re implied or indirectly stated. In order to fully understand a reading assignment, you need to read the material and combine what is stated with the additional information you generate using inference as a tool. While inference is a skill you practice everyday, inferring meaning from textbooks and other college reading material requires you to use specific strategies such as detecting an author's bias, noting comparisons, and reconizing information gaps. You also need to understand how an author's purplse, tone, and use of key words and emotive language can be usedas clues to his or her implied main idea. There are limits to what you can infer, and you should use other information in a reading to check if your conclusions are accurate.
College instructors requier you not only to read and understand what is explicitly stated on the page, but also to detect ideas that re implied or indirectly stated. In order to fully understand a reading assignment, you need to read the material and combine what is stated with the additional information you generate using inference as a tool. While inference is a skill you practice everyday, inferring meaning from textbooks and other college reading material requires you to use specific strategies such as detecting an author's bias, noting comparisons, and reconizing information gaps. You also need to understand how an author's purplse, tone, and use of key words and emotive language can be usedas clues to his or her implied main idea. There are limits to what you can infer, and you should use other information in a reading to check if your conclusions are accurate.
Chapter 6 (Finding supporting details)
Chapter summary
Authours use details to help readers understand their ideas and arguments.Details are specific pieces of information that serve as the "arms and legs" of the main idea. They are usuallly presented as facts, opinions, examples, illustrations, explanations, or definitions and are frequently discovered by asking questions such as who? what? when? how? or why? about the main idea. Major details provide support to the main idea in a reading. Minor details clarify major details.
If you are able to distinguish between the major and minor suporting details in a reading passage, it means you have understood what you read. If you have trouble doing so, it's an indication you need to get assistance. It is also a warning that you may have difficulty if you are tested on the textbook information, even though you have "read"the material.
Knowing how to locate the main idea and the major and minor supporting details in a reading assignment is the foundation of college reading. It isn't possible, or necessary, to remember every piece of information in your textbook chapters. Being able to identify the main ideas and supporting details will help you evaluate what is most important and determine what you need to remember for tests.
Authours use details to help readers understand their ideas and arguments.Details are specific pieces of information that serve as the "arms and legs" of the main idea. They are usuallly presented as facts, opinions, examples, illustrations, explanations, or definitions and are frequently discovered by asking questions such as who? what? when? how? or why? about the main idea. Major details provide support to the main idea in a reading. Minor details clarify major details.
If you are able to distinguish between the major and minor suporting details in a reading passage, it means you have understood what you read. If you have trouble doing so, it's an indication you need to get assistance. It is also a warning that you may have difficulty if you are tested on the textbook information, even though you have "read"the material.
Knowing how to locate the main idea and the major and minor supporting details in a reading assignment is the foundation of college reading. It isn't possible, or necessary, to remember every piece of information in your textbook chapters. Being able to identify the main ideas and supporting details will help you evaluate what is most important and determine what you need to remember for tests.
Chapter 5 ( locating stated main ideas)
Chapter summary
The aility to locate an author's main idea is key to unerstanding your reading. In order to see the relationship between the main idea and the details that support it, You must first distinguish between general ideas and more specific ones. The topic is the most general idea. The main idea is the more specific cotrolling idea of a piece of writing. The details, which are most specific, support and illustrate the main idea.
Questioning yourself, looking in the usual places, noticing clue words, and categorizing an authour's points are four strategies you can use to think systematically about what you read. If you ask yourself the question "What is this all about?" you will actively look for the answer to your question as you read. Looking in the obvious spots helps you to find the main idea more efficiently. Noticing cluse words and categorizing ideas helps you to separate examples and other supporting ideas from the larger, main points, so the relationships between ideas become clear.
Some main ideas are stated directly in a reading and are easy to identify. Others are implied, and you must infer their meaning from the reading and then restate them in your own words. Implied main ideas and strategies for detecting them will explored in Chapter 7.
The aility to locate an author's main idea is key to unerstanding your reading. In order to see the relationship between the main idea and the details that support it, You must first distinguish between general ideas and more specific ones. The topic is the most general idea. The main idea is the more specific cotrolling idea of a piece of writing. The details, which are most specific, support and illustrate the main idea.
Questioning yourself, looking in the usual places, noticing clue words, and categorizing an authour's points are four strategies you can use to think systematically about what you read. If you ask yourself the question "What is this all about?" you will actively look for the answer to your question as you read. Looking in the obvious spots helps you to find the main idea more efficiently. Noticing cluse words and categorizing ideas helps you to separate examples and other supporting ideas from the larger, main points, so the relationships between ideas become clear.
Some main ideas are stated directly in a reading and are easy to identify. Others are implied, and you must infer their meaning from the reading and then restate them in your own words. Implied main ideas and strategies for detecting them will explored in Chapter 7.
Chapter 4 (managing your reading time)
Chapter summary
Comprehension should be your main reading goal, not how fast you read. Develope a general study schedule that shows specifically when you plan to study for each class aand for how long. Choose the times you study based on when you are most alert, and determine the length of each study session using your reading averages for the subjects you are taking. Some classes will require more hours of study than others, and the amounts of time you need to set aside can vary from week to week depending on the complexity of the material for specific course.
Track your reading rates so you can create daily reading plans that set realistic goals for your classes each week. After using a study schedule and daily reading plans for several weeks, you will find that you begin to complete your reading assignments on time. Your reading comprehension will also improve, and you may even read a little faster. The reading tips suggested in this chapter that will contribute to your becoming a more efficient reader are: reading quickly when appropriate, skimmming, regressing or rereading, subvocalizing, pacing.
Comprehension should be your main reading goal, not how fast you read. Develope a general study schedule that shows specifically when you plan to study for each class aand for how long. Choose the times you study based on when you are most alert, and determine the length of each study session using your reading averages for the subjects you are taking. Some classes will require more hours of study than others, and the amounts of time you need to set aside can vary from week to week depending on the complexity of the material for specific course.
Track your reading rates so you can create daily reading plans that set realistic goals for your classes each week. After using a study schedule and daily reading plans for several weeks, you will find that you begin to complete your reading assignments on time. Your reading comprehension will also improve, and you may even read a little faster. The reading tips suggested in this chapter that will contribute to your becoming a more efficient reader are: reading quickly when appropriate, skimmming, regressing or rereading, subvocalizing, pacing.
Chapter 2 (developing your college vocabulary)
Chapter summary
Vocabulary building is one of the most important reading strategies you can learn. By increasing your vocabulary, you increase your understanding of textbook information. You also increase our ability to speak and write well- to communicate eggectively. A rich vocabulary allows you access to many types of reading material, while a limited one prevents you from fully understanding what you read. Increasing your word power not only enhances your academic ability but also increases your chances of getting the job of your choice when you graduate.
Although no noe knows every word, or interrupts reading to look up every unfamiliar word in the dictionary, using the simple strategies presented in this chapter will help you figure out and remember the meaning of new words. These strategies include using context clues, word analysis, writing in your textbook, creating word maps, understanding denotation and connotation, journal writing, and the card review system(CRS). Don't skim over words you don't know. It prevents you from really understanding what you read, makes it difficult for you to participate in class discussions, and can jurt you on exams.
An important way to make new words a part of your regular vocabulary is to use them in your everyday speech and writing. Writing in our journal daily will help.
Vocabulary building is one of the most important reading strategies you can learn. By increasing your vocabulary, you increase your understanding of textbook information. You also increase our ability to speak and write well- to communicate eggectively. A rich vocabulary allows you access to many types of reading material, while a limited one prevents you from fully understanding what you read. Increasing your word power not only enhances your academic ability but also increases your chances of getting the job of your choice when you graduate.
Although no noe knows every word, or interrupts reading to look up every unfamiliar word in the dictionary, using the simple strategies presented in this chapter will help you figure out and remember the meaning of new words. These strategies include using context clues, word analysis, writing in your textbook, creating word maps, understanding denotation and connotation, journal writing, and the card review system(CRS). Don't skim over words you don't know. It prevents you from really understanding what you read, makes it difficult for you to participate in class discussions, and can jurt you on exams.
An important way to make new words a part of your regular vocabulary is to use them in your everyday speech and writing. Writing in our journal daily will help.
Chapter 3 ( remembering what you read)
Chapter summary
Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information. You will have diddiculty remembering what you read if you do not know the stages in the memory process, and purposely use strategies at each stage to ensure that newly learned information becomes permanently stored. The single most important aspect of memory is understanding what you are typing to remember. It is difficult, if not impossible, to remember concepts you do not understand.
The three primary stages in the memory process are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Specific strategies you can use to enhance your sensory memory include the following: reading your text aloud, drawing pictures of the information you are learning, acting out a chapter in front of a mirror or an audience, visualizing information in your head, using your fingers to point to new words, and reading while riding an exercise bike. Chunking is an effective strategy for organizing and remembering new information so that it remains in your short-term memory long enough to transfer into your long-term memory. In order to permanently store new information you can use strategies such as organizing newly learned information, mastering difficult vocabulary, creating a memory matrix, connecting new information with information you already know, going beyond the textbook, reviewing, and teaching the new information to someone else. Recall techniques called mnemonics can help you retrieve information once it has been learned and stored properly. Some mnemonics introduced in this chapter are key words, acrostics, and acronyms.
Memory is the process of storing and retrieving information. You will have diddiculty remembering what you read if you do not know the stages in the memory process, and purposely use strategies at each stage to ensure that newly learned information becomes permanently stored. The single most important aspect of memory is understanding what you are typing to remember. It is difficult, if not impossible, to remember concepts you do not understand.
The three primary stages in the memory process are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Specific strategies you can use to enhance your sensory memory include the following: reading your text aloud, drawing pictures of the information you are learning, acting out a chapter in front of a mirror or an audience, visualizing information in your head, using your fingers to point to new words, and reading while riding an exercise bike. Chunking is an effective strategy for organizing and remembering new information so that it remains in your short-term memory long enough to transfer into your long-term memory. In order to permanently store new information you can use strategies such as organizing newly learned information, mastering difficult vocabulary, creating a memory matrix, connecting new information with information you already know, going beyond the textbook, reviewing, and teaching the new information to someone else. Recall techniques called mnemonics can help you retrieve information once it has been learned and stored properly. Some mnemonics introduced in this chapter are key words, acrostics, and acronyms.
Chapter 1 (Reading in college)
Chapter summary
Reading si an active process based on an author's ability to convey meaning through the written word and your ability to extract meaning from those words. One way to read actively is to connect what you already know to the new information you are learning. Active learners become involved in their learning experience by previewing their reading assignments, outlining chapter or lecture notes, creating visuals, and reading books, other than their textbooks, to learn more about subject they are studying.
Keeping a learning journal is also an active learning tasks. It helps you identify what you understand in a reading assignment and what is still unclear. It can also help you to understand how you learn, which learning styles work best for you, and how you can improve those with which you have difficulty. Using a learning journal will help you to identify, analyze, and correct reading and learning difficulties.
Concerntration involves purposely focusing your attention on a task while simultaneously blocking out distractions. The first step in achieving this is to learn what internal and external distracters block your concerntration. The second step is to record your concentration habits in your reading journals. By using this information, you can learn to change your study environment and state of mind so that you can learn effectively.
Reading si an active process based on an author's ability to convey meaning through the written word and your ability to extract meaning from those words. One way to read actively is to connect what you already know to the new information you are learning. Active learners become involved in their learning experience by previewing their reading assignments, outlining chapter or lecture notes, creating visuals, and reading books, other than their textbooks, to learn more about subject they are studying.
Keeping a learning journal is also an active learning tasks. It helps you identify what you understand in a reading assignment and what is still unclear. It can also help you to understand how you learn, which learning styles work best for you, and how you can improve those with which you have difficulty. Using a learning journal will help you to identify, analyze, and correct reading and learning difficulties.
Concerntration involves purposely focusing your attention on a task while simultaneously blocking out distractions. The first step in achieving this is to learn what internal and external distracters block your concerntration. The second step is to record your concentration habits in your reading journals. By using this information, you can learn to change your study environment and state of mind so that you can learn effectively.
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