Chapter summary
1. Inductive reasoning is the process of thinking that you used in describing a fruit, vegetable, or tool in Chapter 1 when you began by not knowing the identity of the covered object.
2. The inductive method is also called the empirical or scientific method. It appeared in the reading by Samuel Scudder.
3. Induction reasons from evidence about some members of a class in order to form a conclusion about all members of that class.
4. Induction can abe done through sensory observation, enumeration, analoous reasoning, causal reasoninig, and from pattern recognition.
5. Aconclusion derived through inductive reasoning is called a hypothesis and is always less certain than the evidence itself.
6. Inductive reasoning is used as a method for obtaininig information when it would be impossible to examine all the data available. This is done by taking sttistical samplings or by making extrapolations.
7. The five baisc rules for evaluating the reliability of hypotheses based on statistical samplings are as follows;
a) The greater the size of the sample, the greater is its probability of being representative of the whole of a class.
b) A sampling must be representative in order to lead to reliable results.
c) Statistical evidence should be offered in sufficient detail for verification.
d)One counter example can refute a generalization arrived at through inductive reasoning.
e) When evaluating the results of polls, it is important to examine both the polling agency and the polling question for bias.
Thursday, May 8, 2008
TFY Chapter 10 (Fallacies: what's Faulty Argument?)
1. Word ambiguity uses undefined and vague words in an argument, seeking to gain an advantage by using words that could be interpreted in more than one way.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom. Hoever, the appeal to an authentic and appropriate authority is not a fallacy; it can provide excellent support for claims.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attcking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeds to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creates a false replica, then destroys the replica. The straw man also invalidates by attac,ing a minor point as though the whole argument depended upon it.
11. Pointing to another wrong is also called two wrongs make a right. it says , "Don't look at me; he did it too!"
12. Circular reasoning is the assertio or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretned that no supporting reasons are needed. Circular reasoning assumes what it is supposed to prove.
2. Misleading euphemisms are words that hide meaning by wrapping a less acceptable idea in positive or neutral connotations. The use of euphemisms is fallacious in an argument when the goal is to be evasive, to mislead, or to disarm awareness and objections.
3. Prejudicial language persuades through the use of loaded words that convey a bias while pretending to convey objective information.
4. Appeals to fear and pity seek to persuade through affecting emotions rather than through sound rational support for an argument.
5. Appeal to false authority seeks to influence others by citing phony or inappropriate authorities. This false authority might be a person, a tradition, or conventional wisdom. Hoever, the appeal to an authentic and appropriate authority is not a fallacy; it can provide excellent support for claims.
6. Appeal to bandwagon is another example of the appeal to authority. In this case, the authority is the exhilarating momentum of the herd instinct.
7. Personal attack refutes another argument by attcking the opponent rather than addressing the argument itself. This fallacy can take the form of using abusive language or name calling.
8. Poisoning the well seeks to prejudice others against a person, group, or idea and prevent their positions from being heard. This technique seeds to remove the neutrality necessary for listening and to implant prejudice instead.
9. The red herring is a ploy of distraction. It makes a claim, then instead of following through with support, it minimizes the issue or/diverts attention into irrelevant issues.
10. The straw man is an argument that misrepresents, oversimplifies, or caricatures an opponent's position; it creates a false replica, then destroys the replica. The straw man also invalidates by attac,ing a minor point as though the whole argument depended upon it.
11. Pointing to another wrong is also called two wrongs make a right. it says , "Don't look at me; he did it too!"
12. Circular reasoning is the assertio or repeated assertion of a conclusion as though the conclusion were a reason. It can also pretned that no supporting reasons are needed. Circular reasoning assumes what it is supposed to prove.
TFY chapter 9 (Argument: what's a good Argument?)
1. The critical reading of arguments is an active endeaveor that requires involvement, interaction with questions, and evaluation.
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What wiewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e)What are the argument's strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any time during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context. Once the argument's main conclusion is uncovered, the reaseons offered in support becomes clear.
6. Arguments state and defednd a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as though they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
9. The following questions can serve as quidelines for analyzing the strengths and weakness of arguments.
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b)Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of resoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
2. The questions asked in the critical reading of arguments are:
a) What wiewpoint is the source of this argument?
b) What is the issue of controversy?
c) Is it an argument or a report?
d) How is the argument structured in terms of reasons and conclusions?
e)What are the argument's strengths and weakness?
3. The analysis of arguments in terms of their reasons and conclusions applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. Reasons include data, evidence, and premises, while conclusions include those deductively drawn as well as hypotheses.
4. The conclusion of an argument is the last step in a reasoning process. However, it may be stated at any time during an argument or not at all.
5. Reasons support conclusions. They may be generalizations that could function as conclusions in another context. Once the argument's main conclusion is uncovered, the reaseons offered in support becomes clear.
6. Arguments state and defednd a claim. Usually they also attempt to persuade. Arguments disguised as reports slant the facts and language toward a bias.
7. Reports that only relate events or state facts cannot be analyzed as though they were arguments.
8. An issue is a selected aspect of a topic of controversy upon which positions may be taken either pro or con. Issues are stated in neutral terms often beginning with the word should and ending with a question.
9. The following questions can serve as quidelines for analyzing the strengths and weakness of arguments.
a) Are the reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
b)Are there any hidden assumptions?
c) Are any central words ambiguous or slanted so as to incite prejudice?
d) Are there fallacies of resoning?
e) Is any important information missing?
f) Is any information false or contradictory?
TFY Chapter 8 view pints: What's the filter?
chapter summary
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations- can either be conscioulsly or unconscilusly assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shpe their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first-person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocntric, ethnocnetric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the Internet a fat wider range of viewpoints is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious group, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions mad by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
1. Critical thinking means learning to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the content of any message.
2. Viewpoints- like assumptions, opinions, and evaluations- can either be conscioulsly or unconscilusly assumed.
3. We communicate best when we are aware of our own viewpoint and can understand and respect the viewpoints of others as well.
4. Writers shpe their stories through their choice of a point of view; their choices include third-person, first-person, and multiple points of view. These viewpoints may be omniscient or humanly limited.
5. Unconscious viewpoints include the egocntric, ethnocnetric, religiocentric, androcentric, and anthropocentric.
6. U.S. politics cannot be defined in terms of a simple left-to-right spectrum of viewpoints.
7. In alternative periodicals and on the Internet a fat wider range of viewpoints is available than on U.S. network television and mainstream publications. Such viewpoints include third political parties, feminists, gays and lesbians, ethnic minorities, workers, environmentalists, religious group, and immigrants.
8. Periodicals can express viewpoints through images, words, and in the framing given to information. Framing decisions mad by an editor can exercise a hidden influence over the reader.
TFY Chapter 6 ( Opinions: what's Believed?)
1. Although the word opinion is a common one, it is just as commonly misunderstood, since the same word covers so many varieties of thoughts, ranging from expert judgments to expressions of sentiment or personal taste.
2. Opinions can be wll substantiated or not. They can be based either on reaseons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsibel opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is bsed on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not the same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same sageguards as public electrons.
7. Opinionss whould not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
2. Opinions can be wll substantiated or not. They can be based either on reaseons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions, or prejudice.
3. Critical thinking requires that we recognize the difference between responsible and irresponsibel opinion and that we distinguish statements based on evidence from statements based solely on feelings.
4. People enjoy expressing and reading opinions.
5. Expert opinion is bsed on an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation and is important and highly valued.
6. Public opinion polls can be used to determine public sentiment on social and political issues as well as to manipulate public sentiment. This occurs when we forget that sentiment is not the same as informed opinion and that opinion polls are not subject to the same sageguards as public electrons.
7. Opinionss whould not be confused with facts.
8. Arguments consist of supported opinions; the intent of an argument is to persuade.
9. In an essay, a statement of opinion can be the thesis or its principle claim.
TFY Chapter 7 ( Evaluations: What's Judged?)
1. Evaluations make judgements about worth on the basis of standards that may be conscious or unconscious.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instedad of last may be problematiacl when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feeling and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluions since they affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we reconize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not chooose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make positive associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the infulence of propaganda.
2. Evaluations can help us react quickly to situations where our survival is at stake. But this same tendency to evaluate first instedad of last may be problematiacl when we don't reexamine our evidence to make sure our evaluation is warranted.
3. Evaluations are not facts. Factual reports keep the distinction between facts and evaluations clear.
4. Premature evaluations are hasty evaluations that contain unexamined or faulty support.
5. Feeling and expectations affect both our perceptions and evaluations.
6. All of us need to learn how to make fair and sound evaluions since they affect our lives constantly. Experts are those who have a reputation for offering skilled and reliable evaluations.
7. Connotative words convey evaluations that can be used to sway our opinions. When we think critically, we reconize how these connotations affect our feelings so that we can choose or not chooose to accept the opinions they contain.
8. Evaluations are used in advertising and journalism to persuade us, sometimes hypnotically, to make positive associations with products and purchase them.
9. Critical thinking requires that we stay alert to manipulative advertising techniques that are most effective when can be enticed to enter into a trance state.
10. Propaganda employs many sophisticated manipulative techniques of persuasion. One of these is the use of hidden evaluations. A critical thinker knows how to recognize and detach from the infulence of propaganda.
TFY Chapter 5 (Assumptions: what's taken for granted?)
Chapter summary
1. An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we do not check out carefully. Often, we do not recognize that we have made an assumption until it causes a problem for us.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. We need to recognize the diffrence.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that greatly influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously inffluence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. This can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new unerstanding through the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she does not buy the assumptions that restain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are confronted with a problem to solve.
1. An assumption is something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we do not check out carefully. Often, we do not recognize that we have made an assumption until it causes a problem for us.
2. Assumptions can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted. Unconscious and unwarranted assumptions can lead to faulty reasoning, whereas conscious and warranted assumptions can be useful tools for problem solving. We need to recognize the diffrence.
3. Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that greatly influence a line of reasoning. One form of hidden assumptions is stereotypes, where we try to fit new experiences into old or prejudiced categories. Another type is value assumptions, or basic unexamined beliefs that unconsciously inffluence our thinking.
4. Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or to persuade someone else to believe in the idea. Good arguments do not rest upon unexamined assumptions.
5. We perceive incongruities when we observe situations that do not meet our expectations or assumptions. This can cause a feeling of disequilibrium. We restore our equilibrium when we reach a new unerstanding through the process of reexamining our assumptions. This is a familiar and continuous process that results in growth and learning.
6. Someone who brings a fresh perspective to a problem that has stumped others is often able to find a solution because he or she does not buy the assumptions that restain others. As a conscious tool, we can look for assumptions when we are confronted with a problem to solve.
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